Webmotivation which focused on group differences (see Graham, 1994). The effects of social identity on motivation and performance may be positive, as illustrated in the previous section, but negative stereotypes can lead people to underperform on cognitive tasks (see Steele et al., 2002; Walton and Spencer, 2009). Learners mastery and performance goals may also influence learning and achievement through indirect effects on cognition. Researchers are beginning to develop interventions motivated by theories of motivation to improve student motivation and learning. In contrast, they argued, the prevailing North American culture tends to emphasize individualistic goals and an individualistic self-construal that prioritizes unique traits, abilities, and accomplishments tied to the self rather than to the community. They can operate separately (e.g., an African American) or in combination (an African American male student) (Oyserman, 2009). It is the lens through which an individual makes sense of experiences and positions herself in the social world. Table 6-1 shows how learners mindsets can relate to their learning goals and behaviors. Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Studies such as these are grounded in different theories of motivation related to the learners cognition, affect, or behavior and are intended to affect different aspects of motivation. These students perceived failure as a reflection of their inability and typically responded to failure with frustration, shame, and anxiety. To reduce this feeling, individuals tend to change their preferences to especially value and become interested in the thing they chose (Izuma et al., 2010). Notably, interventions that have addressed stereotype threat tend to target and support identity rather than self-esteem. Expectancy-value theories have drawn attention to how learners choose goals depending on their beliefs about both their ability to accomplish a task and the value of that task. 7 Jrvenoja 8 suggests that motivation For example, women are given a test in math. By contrast, learners with performance goals tend to focus on learning individual bits of information separately, which improves speed of learning and immediate recall but may undermine conceptual learning and long-term recall. Research is needed, however, to better establish the efficacy of practices designed to shape learners thinking about future identities and persistence. People who come from backgrounds where college attendance is not the norm may question whether they belong in college despite having been admitted. A number of studies suggest that situational interest can be a strong predictor of engagement, positive attitudes, and performance, including a study of students essay writing (Flowerday et al., 2004) and other research (e.g., Alexander and Jetton, 1996; Schraw and Lehman, 2001). (Immordino-Yang et al., 2009). For instance, when learner interest is low, students may be less engaged and more likely to attend to the learning goals that require minimal attention and effort. WebLearning to teach is construed as a process of learning to understand, develop, and use oneself effectively. As we discuss below, learners who have a fixed view of intelligence tend to set demonstrating competence as a learning goal, whereas learners who have an incremental theory of intelligence tend to set mastery as a goal and to place greater value on effort. This perspective also suggests the potential benefits of encouraging learners to think about problems and goals from different cultural perspectives. They seek to extend their Extrinsic rewards support engagement sufficient for learning, as shown in one study in which rewards were associated with enhanced memory consolidation but only when students perceived the material to be boring (Murayama and Kuhbandner, 2011). The perception of choice also may affect learning by fostering situational interest and engagement (Linnenbrink-Garcia et al., 2013). For example, priming interventions such as those that encourage participants to call up personal memories of cross-cultural experiences (Tadmor et al., 2013) have been used successfully to shift students from their tendency to take one cultural perspective or the other. information. WebFor example, in one study of college students, five characteristics of informational texts were associated with both interest and better recall: (1) the information was important, new, At any given time, an individual holds multiple goals related to achievement, belongingness, identity, autonomy, and sense of competence that are deeply personal, cultural, and subjective. Many studies of how interest affects learning have included measures of reading comprehension and text recall. Research on how to improve self-efficacy for learning has shown the benefits of several strategies for strengthening students sense of their competence for learning, including setting appropriate goals and breaking down difficult goals into subgoals (Bandura and Schunk, 1981) and providing students with information about their progress, which allows them to attribute success to their own effort (Schunk and Cox, 1986). Related research indicates that enhanced motivation is dependent on learners taking charge of their own learning (Lamb 2001; da Silva 2002; Sakui 2002; Takagi 2003; Ushioda 2003, 2006). This approach has allowed researchers to assess the separate effects of topic interest and interest in a specific text on how readers interact with text, by measuring the amount of time learners spend reading and what they learn from it. Interest is also important in adult learning in part because students and trainees with little interest in a topic may show higher rates of absenteeism and lower levels of performance (Ackerman et al., 2001). Learners may simultaneously pursue multiple goals (Harackiewicz et al., 2002; Hulleman et al., 2008) and, depending on the subject area or skill domain, may adopt different achievement goals (Anderman and Midgley, 1997). The concept of value encompasses learners judgments about (1) whether a topic or task is useful for achieving learning or life goals, (2) the importance of a topic or task to the learners identity or sense of self, (3) whether a task is enjoyable or interesting, and (4) whether a task is worth pursuing (Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield and Eccles, 2000). Sometimes the spark of motivation begins with a meaningful alignment of student interest with an assignment or other learning opportunity. Web1. [2010]; and the work of King [2015] on students in the Philippines.). Our Motivation Science lab takes an integrative approach, drawing from multiple disciplines (e.g., cognitive, social and educational psychology, cognitive/social Copyright 2023 National Academy of Sciences. However, other studies have not replicated these findings (e.g., Dee, 2015; Hanselman et al., 2017), so research is needed to determine for whom and under which conditions values-affirmation approaches may be effective. In the threat condition, members of the stereotyped group perform at lower levels than they do in the gender-neutral condition. One such strategy is to support learners in trying out multiple ideas before settling on the final idea. These students experience a form of stereotype threat, where prevailing cultural stereotypes about their position in the world cause them to doubt themselves and perform more poorly (Steele and Aronson, 1995). Learners who are intrinsically motivated also perceive that the challenges of a problem or task are within their abilities. In the case of women and math, for instance, women perform more poorly on the math test than would be expected given their actual ability (as demonstrated in other contexts) (Steele and Aronson, 1995). Learners ideas about their own competence, their values, and the preexisting interests they bring to a particular learning situation all influence motivation. less likely to seek challenges and persist than those who focus on learning itself. However, this meta-analysis was small: only 74 published and unpublished papers met criteria for inclusion, and the included studies involved a wide range of theoretical perspectives, learner populations, types of interventions, and measured outcomes. . Researchers have explored the mechanisms through which such experiences affect learning. Academic goals are shaped not only by the immediate learning context but also by the learners goals and challenges, which develop and change. The next section examines types of goals and research on their influence. Students who received praise for ability were more likely to adopt performance goals on a subsequent test, whereas those praised for effort were more likely to adopt mastery goals. In both cases, it is a change in mindset and goal construction brought about by interest that explains improved learning outcomes (Barron, 2006; Bricker and Bell, 2014; Goldman and Booker, 2009). If competence is the main motivator If not properly planed it could also leads to rivalry for the competitors. Participating students responded to only 16 of the full set of 81 MSLQ WebCompetition is a motivational strategy that generally creates achievement orientations among the learners. The meaning of motivation and three main approaches to motivational psychology: expectancy-value theory, goal-directed theory and the self-determination A recent study examined interventions designed to boost the sense of belonging among African American college freshmen (Walton and Cohen, 2011). Theoretical approaches are an understandably integral part of the therapeutic Under threatening conditions, individuals show lower levels of activation in the brains prefrontal cortex, reflecting impaired executive functioning and working memory (Beilock et al., 2007; Cadinu et al., 2005; Johns et al., 2008; Lyons and Beilock, 2012; Schmader and Jones, 2003) and higher levels of activation in fear circuits, including, for example, in the amygdala (Spencer et al., 1999; Steele and Aronson, 1995). 143145; also see Cerasoli et al.. 2016; Vansteenkiste et al., 2009). Such interventions appear particularly promising for African American students and other cultural groups who are subjected to negative stereotypes about learning and ability. Goal Orientation Awareness. We then examine research on interventions and approaches to instructional design that may influence motivation to learn, and we close with our conclusions about the implications of this research. Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email. survey studies have offered insights about the ways learners who fit these two categories tend to vary in their assessment of goals, the goals they see as relevant or salient, and the ways in which their goals relate to other phenomena such as school achievement (King and McInerney, 2016). Others have noted that different types of goals, such as mastery and performance goals, have different effects on the cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes that underlie learning as well as on learners outcomes (Ames and Archer, 1988; Covington, 2000; Dweck, 1986).
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